"Maintaining Chinese as a heritage language in the United States: what really matters?¡¨

ABSTRACT
Despite the fact that bilingualism is a norm and more and more researches concluded that bilingualism yield positive outcome (Tse 2001, Fisherman, 1991), heritage language maintenance (HLM) face great challenges in the US. This study aims to reveal: what makes Chinese Americans maintain Chinese and what are the major factors for successful HLM in an English-dominant society? Data were collected through a comprehensive Chinese language learning survey and follow-up interviews. Participants were 30 children (age: 8-14, M=10) from a large southwestern border city in the US. They were learning Chinese in a Sunday Chinese school. Results indicated that parents are positive about raising bilingual Children. However, it is difficult due to various reasons. It is found that children are passive in learning Chinese, especially when they are young. They haven't appreciated the value of bilingualism. There is a lack of conducive environment for HLM in the English-dominant society. Based on the survey and relevant literature, two major factors are proposed to account for the success of Chinese language learning for heritage learners.

One is at the micro level: Family plays a crucial role. Parents pass their attitude and beliefs about HLM to their children at a very young age. One mediating factor is that strong cohesion among family members leads to better language maintenance. Extended family members such as grandparents are helpful to provide more exposure to the heritage language and cultivate a positive attitude towards language learning among grandchildren. Peer influences play a vital role. Sometimes it is more important than parents. Individuals' characteristics influence HLM. More commitment to learning the language and more positive attitude yields better results in maintaining their language.

The other is ethnic identity. It is a key factor in explaining HLM. Co-ethnic communities are important because it provides a sense of belonging. Ethnolinguistic vitality is a useful construct to explain heritage language maintenance. When people perceive that their language is of high vitality, i.e., of high prestige in terms of factors such as social, cultural and psychological influences, they are more likely to preserve their language. Pressure for language assimilation and negative attitudes towards minority languages play an important role. Institution support plays an important role too. Formal instruction provides learning opportunities. We should be aware that bad learning experience can change children's opinion about their heritage language.